Module 12. Evidence

Up to this point, we’ve studied how to determine whether an argument is valid or invalid, and how to reconstruct invalid arguments to make them valid. We haven’t discussed how to determine whether or not an argument is sound: that is, how to determine whether or not the premises are true. For that, we need evidence about the way the world is. This module studies the types of evidence available to us. First, we’ll study sources of direct evidence: perception, testimony, and memory, and the ways each can fail. Then, we’ll study indirect sources of evidence, including arguments from analogy, induction, abduction, and inference to the best explanation.

• 12.1 Direct Evidence
  • 12.1.1 What is Evidence?
    • Justifying the Premises
    • Types of Justification
  • 12.1.2 Using Evidence to Defend a Premise
    • Particular and Universal Claims
  • 12.1.3 Perceptual Evidence
    • Observations
    • Measurement
    • Inferences Based on Observations
  • 12.1.4 Testimonial Evidence
    • Testimony
    • Reliable Sources
    •  A Word on Testimonial Injustice
  • 12.1.5 Evidence From Memory
    • Memory as a Source of Evidence
    • Failure by Forgetfulness
    • Failure by Distortion
    • Introspection, Imagination, and Rational Insight
  • Submodule 12.1 Quiz
• 12.2 Supporting Evidence
  • 12.2.1 Arguments by Analogy
    • Arguments by Analogy
    • Strong and Weak Analogies
    • Relevance and The Fallacy of False Analogy
  • 12.2.2 Arguments by Induction
    • Inductive Arguments
    • Six Criteria for Strong Inductive arguments
  • 12.2.3 Scientific Laws
    • Scientific Explanations
    • Hypothesis and Theory
  • Submodule 12.2 Quiz
• 12.3 Suggestive Evidence
  • 12.3.1 Abduction and Hypothesis
    • Abductive Argument
  • 12.3.2 Disanalogies and Exceptions
    • The Plausibility of a Hypothesis
    • Identifying Dissimilarities
  • 12.3.3 Inference to the Best Explanation
    • Inference to the Best Explanation
    • The Seven Explanatory Virtues
    • Falsifiability
  • 12.3.4 Moral Arguments
    • The Top Ten Types of Moral Argument
    • 1. Arguments by Analogy.
    • 2. Arguments from Function.
    • 3. Arguments from Reciprocal Relationship.
    • 4. Arguments from Authority.
    • 5. Arguments from Consistency.
    • 6. Arguments from Humanity.
    • 7. Arguments from Justice 
    • 8. Arguments from Consequences.
    • 9. Arguments from Freedom.
    • 10. Arguments from Responsibility.
    • Conclusion
  • Submodule 12.3 Quiz